Deterrence and Criminal Justice Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Deterrence and Criminal Justice. Answer: Introduction Deterrence is one of the central concepts in the subject of criminal justice globally. In simple words Deterrence means discouraging or condemning criminal activities by threatening the person committing the crime to be received serious ramifications. Deterrence is one of the long standing concepts which have acted as the mainstay for practicing criminal justice. Deterrence as a concept has been there in use from the ancient times when the roman kings used to punish people for wrongdoings against the state. In this way deterrence has becomes such a strong aspect for criminal justice across the world. Deterrence came into being with greater importance as in the earlier days of king most of the people feared being received with major punishment that prevented them from committing any kind of crime. Most of the opponents of the capital punishment have opposed strongly against deterrence stating that it doesnt have major impact on the person and hence it could be said that capital punish ment doesnt have any positive impact on crime. In the contemporary world it is stated that punishment is the not the best of ways to eliminate crime or prevent people to commit crime and hence show deterrence doesnt work anymore (Braga and Weisburd, 2012). In the present argumentative essay there are two different ideas of deterrence namely theory of punishment and impulsivity. The essay will discuss these two concepts which would help to compare and contrast deterrence and state why deterrence doesnt work anymore. Comparison between two different deterrence ideas Over the years the federal systems have largely dependent on punishment in order to focus on deterring the range of crime to a large extent. Over the years there are number of people in different countries who are incarcerated for crimes but the rate of crime doesnt seem to end. The sentencing systems have been largely used to focus on improving the offenders but it has been seen that deterrence cannot work in the contemporary world. While the criminal justice system as a whole makes a deterrent effect but it is important to understand that most of the criminal justice systems focus on applying the punishment but it could be said that opposing scholars state that punishment doesnt work anymore. In broad view punishment could be expected to affect deterrence in one or two ways (Willison and Warkentin, 2013). In Australia it could be seen that the crime rate has not reduced even after the application of punishment that is the maximum rate of punishment the rate of crime has not reduced . The standard counter agreement against punishment is that one could execute innocent person and hence it is important to assess that deterrence may not work. With punishment it cannot be said that criminal activities have reduced dramatically but with liberal criminal justice policies deterrence have been strongly denied. Capital punishment in different countries is different but in most of the situations it could be said that capital punishment doesnt affect the mindset of the criminals to a large extent. Rationality is one of the main concepts in the deterrence and it has to be understood that the two different concepts of deterrence namely theory of punishment and impulsivity (Jackson et al., 2012). The deterrence theory mainly states that people obey law because they are afraid of punishment and hence tend to obey law. The deterrence theory mainly states that people do not commit crime because they are afraid of law but because of being motivated to by moral sense. Hence in this case it could be said that a person is motivated and dissuaded from committing a crime if the punishment is swift, certain and severe. While deterrence is focused on preventing wrong doers from committing crimes on the other hand it is effective to set examples for the others to deter against crime. Basically deterrence is based on different ideas but the theory of punishment is one of the common ideas that work in deterrence (Kleck and Barnes, 2013). Punishment is one of the oldest methods that are used to deter offenders and other people. It has been stated by the researchers that the end of crime is punishment. As discussed deterrence is largely related to punishment as punishment is given in order to deter commoners from committing crimes but in the contemporary world it cannot be said that punishment doesnt really act effectively to prevent people from committing crimes and hence punishment is not supported by many research scholars. It is also stated that for behavior modifications punishment is not anymore a suitable option rather reward system have been supported by the scholars to a large extent (Nagin, 2013). Since the yester years crime has been seen as evil and was considered performed under a spell by evil spirit and hence he or she was punished and since people in the earlier years were afraid of punishments and so they did not commit crimes initially. As per the statistics the crime rate in Australia did not get red uced even after strong and maximum punishment given by the court of Law. As per the information way back in the 1967 the murder rate in Australia was around 150 increasing over a period of time by 200 where there were 96 executions done but there were no changes in the murder rates over the years which clearly shows that punishment doesnt make a huge difference in the minds of the criminal (Cronin-Furman, 2013). Impulsivity is another idea on which deterrence works especially when its stated that deterrence is largely based on rationality. It is important to note that in crime it is stated that most of the people have that decision making ability which drives them to either commit a crime or not committing it. Impulsivity is an extremely important aspect in the study of deterrence and hence it is important that this aspect is studied properly. The general theory of crime clearly states that committing a crime basically depends on the self control and the ability to make decisions and this is where most of the potential criminals might deter from committing crimes but on the other hand it could be said that most of the criminals with long criminal background are not moved by impulses as hence commit crimes (Saridakis and Spengler, 2012). It is considered that they are not impulsive and since make their decisions extremely effectively and hence doesnt become impulsive. Describing criminality i n terms of self control is very tough and hence impulsivity cannot focus on deterrence as with longer criminal record. For instance when a person is doing robbery for money there mightnt be impulse working on it. On the other hand if a person is doing burglary for a specific reason impulse will definitely come into play which might stop him or her before committing the crime (Wellman, 2013). Impulsiveness means a different world view. It cannot be denied that people are born with positive and negative impulses and hence it is important to control the negative impulse effectively. Interdisciplinary study of impulsivity has related this aspect with antisocial conduct. Impulsivity is also a part of the working of psychopathic personality and has been associated with insane criminal mindset. Impulsivity from the point of view of psychology has been defined as the characteristics showed by a man who are largely denied social status or are considered inferior which then drive them to comm it a crime and hence mere punishments wouldnt rehabilitate their mindsets from committing another crime (Crockett, zdemir and Fehr, 2014). Comparing both the ideas taken up in this case it could be said that both the ideas are different from each other when one shows the applicability of punishment to rehabilitate a person on the other hand impulsivity shows the impulses that drive a person to commit a crime. It is important to assess both the perspectives effective to understand why deterrence doesnt work anymore. In the recent past there have been number of debates over the applicability of maximum sentence in rehabilitating a person or eliminating his thoughts about crime. On the other hand impulse is considered largely a reason for which a person commits crime (Garoupa and Rizzolli, 2012). People with impulsivity have been seen to have excessive propensity to commit crime and hence it is important for the criminal justice to have something better rather stronger to rehabilitate such actions or thoughts. Impulsivity is perhaps the most common trait associated with individual difference on offending. It is important t o note that most of the criminals committing a crime are focused on ultimately getting the benefits and hence doesnt consider the consequence and people who weigh up both these aspects make prudent decisions and this is where impulsivity comes into play (Friesen, 2012). A person who is considering a revenge on another person will definitely think about the possible ramifications he or she is likely to face after committing the crime. Hence these people cannot be influenced by the kind of sentence they get as may be he or she will do only one murder or may be when the person comes out of the jail will consider a career in crime which then he or she will do for money. There is a huge difference between deterrence by punishment with impulsivity. Maximum punishment of life incarceration or death sentence will not affect the mindset of the other criminals as now there are various ways of eluding criminal charges and hence impulsive criminals focus on committing crimes with a full proof p lan which would help him or her to elude charges (Kunst and Van Wilsem, 2013). In recent research it has been stated that impulsive felons focus on understanding the consequences and benefits and they often feel the consequences are deferred or uncertain which then helps them to commit a crime without any possible fear and it is tough to manage such criminals. The question that arises here is whether it is possible to deter these kinds of people from committing crimes further. The answer is considered a conundrum as it has been seen that even strictest punishments have not been able to reduce murders and molestations and hence it can clearly be stated that punishment is not anymore the best way to deter people from committing crimes. Impulsivity has come into the picture the importance of punishment has reduced to a large extent as people are not anymore afraid of punishments even death sentence. Even though it cannot be denied that long term jail do prevent crime but up to a point (Higgins et al., 2013). Logically analysing the impulsivity perspective of crime it could be said that it is very tough to manage impulsive criminals as they do not believe in humanity and are extremely selfish and want to achieve their own interest pretty easily. Hence some of the major questions which have been asked by the researchers that whether there is a clear impact of punishment on impulsive offenders the answer will clearly be no because it really doesnt make a huge difference on them and hence impulsivity will have to be dealt in different way (Carli et al., 2014). Punishing the offenders is basically the duty of all the states in Australia in fact in all the countries but it could be said that with time passing by there are number of ways people now can avoid punishment and even after punishment they are driven to commit crimes either for money or for taking revenge. A common point that could be used in this case to understand deterrence and punishment, is wearing helmet and getting fined for no t doing it. There are number of people all across the world who regularly ride motorcycles and dont wear helmets even after knowing if they get caught they could be fined or jailed for doing it repeatedly but still there are hardly people who follow rules which clearly shows that mere punishment is not anymore effective in deterring people from committing crimes especially impulsive criminals. There is another problem with punishment as often it is seen that the court or the justice system sometime accuse the innocent and acquit the guilty and naturally this makes the person an impulsive criminal who then sets in motion a series of events that completely changes the perspective of the innocent about the justice system and the society (Healey and Beauregard, 2017). Even though both the perspectives are definitely different but establish good viewpoints about making decisions regarding deterrence how it is influenced by punishment and impulsivity. Under any system especially in Australia men are taken care of in the best possible manner under punishment but then again the viewpoint of the society definitely doesnt change on him and he still is a criminal. The main difference among impulsive and non impulsive criminals is that impulsive criminals are more likely to focus on the benefits of the crime and non impulsive criminals will definitely weigh up the decisions effectively before committing a crime. The criminological research of impulsivity has focused primarily on the certainty and timing of the reward and cost of the offending behavior. Apparently it could be said that deterrence is tough in the contemporary world with punishment as long term punishment or death sentence ends up the career of a person and hence doesnt let the world know about the possible learning of the criminal and hence it doesnt end crime or criminals as courts become lenient but the planning of the crime becomes more interesting and smart that reduc es the chances of charges (Higgins et al., 2013). Deterrence is a complicated concept and there are number of aspects which come into play in this case. It is important to note that not always people will focus to make proper decisions before they commit crimes and feebleminded people will commit crime whimsically and then think about the consequences and hence mere punishment will not be able to restrain people from committing mistakes like this and hence this is where it becomes clear that why deterrence doesnt work anymore in the contemporary world and there should be specific strategies which should be developed to manage crimes and reduce crimes with swift, certain and severe decisions that will not let any further crime to happen (Nagin, 2013). Conclusion To conclude the essay it could be said that deterrence is difficult in the contemporary world as most of the criminals are focused on committing the crime and weighing up the benefits and consequences but at times they are very impulsive and hence impulsive people cannot be controlled through punishment. The two different perspectives of crime states that wither harsh punishments a story of a criminal is paused but it cannot completely make changes in the criminal environment as well as in the mindset of the criminals because impulsivity is largely related to criminality and hence it could be said that most of the criminals are impulsive and focused on doing the crime for maximum benefits and they dont think about punishment which ultimately doesnt lead to creation of awareness in the society and hence deterrence is not there. Overall to conclude it could be said that deterrence doesnt work anymore due to the increase in impulsive offenders and with the decrease in the impact of puni shments. References Braga, A.A. and Weisburd, D.L., 2012. The effects of focused deterrence strategies on crime: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical evidence.Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,49(3), pp.323-358. Carli, V., Mandelli, L., Zaninotto, L., Alberti, S., Roy, A., Serretti, A. and Sarchiapone, M., 2014. Trait-aggressiveness and impulsivity: role of psychological resilience and childhood trauma in a sample of male prisoners.Nordic journal of psychiatry,68(1), pp.8-17. Crockett, M.J., zdemir, Y. and Fehr, E., 2014. The value of vengeance and the demand for deterrence.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,143(6), p.2279. Cronin-Furman, K., 2013. Managing expectations: international criminal trials and the prospects for deterrence of mass atrocity.International Journal of Transitional Justice,7(3), pp.434-454. Friesen, L., 2012. Certainty of punishment versus severity of punishment: An experimental investigation.Southern Economic Journal,79(2), pp.399-421. Garoupa, N. and Rizzolli, M., 2012. Wrongful convictions do lower deterrence.Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics JITE,168(2), pp.224-231. Healey, J. and Beauregard, E., 2017. Impulsivity as an etiological factor in sexual homicide.Journal of Criminal Justice,48, pp.30-36. Higgins, G.E., Kirchner, E.E., Ricketts, M.L. and Marcum, C.D., 2013. Impulsivity and offending from childhood to young adulthood in the United States: A developmental trajectory analysis.International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences,8(2), p.182. Jackson, J., Bradford, B., Hough, M., Myhill, A., Quinton, P. and Tyler, T.R., 2012. Why do people comply with the law? Legitimacy and the influence of legal institutions.British journal of criminology,52(6), pp.1051-1071. Kleck, G. and Barnes, J.C., 2013. Deterrence and Macro-Level Perceptions of Punishment Risks: Is There a Collective Wisdom?.Crime Delinquency,59(7), pp.1006-1035. Kunst, M. and Van Wilsem, J., 2013. Trait impulsivity and change in mental health problems after violent crime victimization: a prospective analysis of the Dutch Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences database.Journal of interpersonal violence,28(8), pp.1642-1656. Nagin, D.S., 2013. Deterrence in the twenty-first century.Crime and Justice,42(1), pp.199-263. Saridakis, G. and Spengler, H., 2012. Crime, deterrence and unemployment in Greece: A panel data approach.The Social Science Journal,49(2), pp.167-174. Wellman, C.H., 2012. The rights forfeiture theory of punishment.Ethics,122(2), pp.371-393. Willison, R. and Warkentin, M., 2013. Beyond deterrence: An expanded view of employee computer abuse.MIS quarterly,37(1).

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Furthermore, the Norwegian Euroscepticism can be traced to both the economic and cultural territorial cleavages that shape the Norwegian party system, thus cutting across the main left-right dimension in Norway i.e. socio-economic competition between Labour and the Conservatives. (Eliassen and Sitter 2003). The centre-periphery cleavages derived from the national revolution and the rural-urban cleavages that were arose during the industrial revolution are other two explanatory dimensions of Euroscepticsm in Norway (Rokkan and Urwin 1983). Domestic politics reflect economic inequalities and conflicts of interest stemming from the huge geographic extension of the country from south to north and the gap in living conditions between the densely inhabited and industrialized areas of south and the thinly populated rural and coastal districts. Furthermore, throughout the EU debates there were unusual but strong alliances between farmers and fisherman, urban radicals, and partisans of lingui stic, religious and teetotalist counter-cultures. Miles (1996) finds that on most of these dimensions there has been a remarkable stability since the early 1970s. The economic dimension of Norwegian Euroscepticism is illustrated in the sectors that face uncertainty or decreased subsidies if exposed to free trade and competition, primarily agriculture and fisheries, but also to a smaller extent the public sector. Fear that integration might undermine Norways regional policy, which entails both economic transfers and positive discrimination in the forms of tax-breaks and other financial incentives, provides further grounds for economic opposition. In terms of identity or culture, European integration has been perceived as a potential or actual threat to Norways moral-religious heritage (Eliassen and Sitter 2003). Foreign and security policy added as further dimension to the Norwegian Euroscepticism. Until 2000, there was scarce evidence of that Norway was responding to the end of the Cold War and changing military and security realities of the 1990s, and the distance between Norwegian and EU security policy was greater than at the beginning of the decade (Eliassen and Sitter 2003). This is rooted partly in the perception that Norway is a different country, in terms of either geopolitics or its international profile. The EU and the USs changing approaches to security and defense (beyond sole focus on traditional concerns of defense of state bounders), has little effect on the Norwegian foreign and security policy. However, even in narrow terms of security concerns, Norway is finding that its non-NATO neighbours are increasingly addressing regional concerns through the EU institutions. Given its NATO membership and geostrategic position, Norway would be in a prime position to play a strong role in shaping the EUs emerging security and defense policy. Thus, even in the absence of EU membership, Norway joined the Schengen agreement on police cooperation and border control and performs surveillance on the European It has also established close cooperation with the EU on its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Historical outline of Norways foreign economic relations since independence Norway is no stranger to complex relations with the outside world (Claes and Fossum 2002). Its foreign policy has historically striven to strike a balance between internationalism and national self-assertion. Although united under a common king as early as 872, it lost its independence in the late Middle Ages, was ruled by Denmark from 1390 to 1814, and then was the possession of the Swedish king until obtaining independence in 1905. In order to find the connection between a nations national identity and her foreign policy, one must first deal with whether Norwegian identity formation has yet ended up with a solid national identity. Anthony Smith (1993) outlines fundamental features of a national identity as such: a historic territory (homeland); common myths and historical memories; a common mass public culture including dialect languages and shared customs/traditions; common legal rights and duties for all members; and a common economy with territorial mobility for members. Internalizing Smiths features of national identity as well as making, Norwegian society has come up with an accomplished national identity without question. The main priority in Norwegian foreign and security policy after the Second World War was always the Atlantic relationship, built around NATO membership and a strong reliance on the United Kingdom and the United States. In 1960 Norway joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) which included the United Kingdon, Finland, Sweden, Austria, and Liechtenstein. However, Norways applications to join the European Community in 1962 and 1967 and vetoed by France indicated that there was potential for conflict in the Norwegian political system concerning stronger orientation towards the European Community. The opposition was not limited to the internal dimensions. Externally, membership meant a potential break with the traditional non-supranational Nordic and EFTA approaches. As a consequence, it was felt by many Norwegians that Nordic cooperation might be jeopardized by opting for EC membership. The 1972 Trauma In the 1972 referendum on EC membership, a majority of 53 percent of the population voted against. Community to ensure duty-free trade for manufactured goods, the European question receded from its political agenda. The negative referendum outcome caused something like a political earthquake in Norway. It marked a broad popular protest against the exclusive competence of the government to handle questions of foreign policy and international economics generally and against EC membership specifically. The No in a way became part of the Constitution, standing above the government, the Storting (parliament) and the political parties. Despite the rejection in 1972, and the following silent treatment of the membership issue, the prospect of the Single European Market triggered negotiations to link the EFTA states with the EC through the creation of the European Economic Area agreement (EEA). As an intergovernmental agreement between the EU and the three remaining EFTA partners (Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway), the EEA became the backbone of Norway s economic relationship with the EU. The vote against membership of the European Community in the 1972 set the scene for an approach to European integration based on an ever closer cooperation short of actual membership. Despite the rejection of membership, Norway was required to respond to and accommodate European integration. What started as bilateral relationships between each EFTA member and the EU evolved into coordinated multilateral interaction in the early 1980s. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] (Eliassen and Sitter 2003) The 1994 No referendum to EU membership In the wake of the 1994 referendum , in Norway, enormous offshore oil and gas resources had been developed, increasing the level of Norwegian exports and adding one more sensitive sector to the Norwegian negotiation agenda with the EU. In the EU, a more ambitious direction was employed both to harmonize economic regulations of the members in order to create a common market and economic union, and also to create a political union with common foreign policy. The impact of these changes together with political considerations, including loss of sovereignty in critical decision-making areas, made the distance between Norway and the Union extended. The No slogan EU campaigns 1994 slogan centered on three words environment, solidarity and national rule all of which were threatened by the Union. Norwegian Method of European Integration The combination in increasingly close cooperation in a growing range of policy sectors while excluding the possibility of full membership has come to represent a join-as-much-as-we-can-get-away-with approach to European integration on the governments part has been called the Norwegian method of European integration (Eliassen and Sitter 2001). The results in both 1972 and 1994 referendums were marginal No majorities, and this has been combined with a permanent pro-integration majority in Parliament, hence the basis for the Norwegian method of European integration. Strenghts of the Norwegian method in European integration The European Economic Area (EEA) has been, is and will be the cornerstone of Norwegian involvement in European integration. The deal entails comprehensive membership in the EUs Single European Market, and most Norwegian parties consider a well-functioning EEA an essential prerequisite for Norway not applying for full membership of the EU. Enlargement of the Single European Market was, of course, both for the EU and the EFTA countries, the key motive behind the EEA agreement (leaving aside the broader political goals of extending European integration), and this is perhaps the aspect of the EU Norway relationship that has worked best. Nevertheless, under the EEA arrangement Norway has seen much better economic development over the last decade than the EU average. The Norwegian North Sea oil wealth is almost a blessing for the Norwegian economy, but not the only, explanation for this. 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Norways has secured ad-hoc participation in several EU policy initiatives beyond those covered by the EEA The most spectacular of these, are the Schengen arrangement on passport free travel and associated policies and Norways close cooperation with the EU on its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Perhaps most significantly, the EU-Norway relationship is dynamic. Although this means that the EEA treaty is upgraded when the EU enlarges, most of the responsibility is on the three EFTA members unilaterally to adapt to developments in the EU. This means both EU Treaty change and substantial developments in EU policy. Weaknesses of the Norwegian method in European integration The Norwegian quasi-membership in the EU (Eliassen and Sitter 2004) entails ever-closer cooperation, and the advantages of the supposed discretion that such arrangements entail shrinks with the deepening and widening of the EU. The first challenge is associated with the deepening of the EU. Although the EU as a whole is generally pleased with Norways performance, it shows little interest in developing this system much further to accommodate deepening of European integration. The EEA and Schengen systems are static compared to the very dynamic developments within the EU. Both arrangements are becoming ever smaller parts of the whole, and this is particularly evident when the EU moves into new areas such as counter-terrorism. In other rapidly developing areas such as foreign, security and defense policy, the overall Norwegian strategy is not always clearly developed, and the EU side justifiable questions whether Oslo is prepared to accept the full implications of ad hoc participation in any given initiative. The price for access the Single Market is accepting EU market regulation and competition policy. In terms of the free movement of goods, services, capital and labour, there is little difference between the EEA agreements and full EU membership, and the EEA competition policy has brought a degree of supranationalism to an otherwise intergovernmental agreement. Although Norway has adopted less to EUs competition policy than most member states, it has partially adopted the EUs prohibition approach and remains under pressure to follow EU states in adapting to the EU system (Eliassen and Sitter 2003). The EUs eastern enlargement, or widening, makes up the second element of the challenge of the future and the dilemma of quasi-membership. The tenfold increase in the fee for Norways access to the EU Single Market agreed as part of the EEA enlargement deal not only illustrates the shifting balance between the costs and benefits of quasi-membership (and some EU states perception of Norway as a rich relative who is unwilling to contribute to the common good), but also the potential consequences of the growing asymmetry between the EU and EFTA partners in the EEA. Conclusion Are Norwegians as Eurosceptic as we often think? The question of how and to what extent Norway should participate in European integration has been the most important issue in national politics since the Second World War. The current Norwegian method of European integration lies between the alternatives of full membership and withdrawal from the EEA. At the same time, Norways non-membership of the EU understood as economically sensible for a country rich on natural resources is seen by most of the EU members as an indicator of self-reliance and national independence which suggests cultural introversion and a lack of need to actively trade and communicate in cultural, scientific and commercial matters with the rest of Europe. Despite this quite false picture that is developing, are Norwegians as Eurosceptic as we often think? In light of this, I have identified four arguments against the standard story of Norwegian Euroscepticism: High degree of integration with European markets when looking at the share of import and export from/to EU of total (2000-2009); High degree of compliance with EU Norms, revealed through the percentage of EU directives not transported (EU and EEA scoreboards) between 1997-2009; Considerable pragmatism by Norwegian political parties (i.e. there is a difference between talking and acting). All parties have governed on the EEA and if it was not supported, at least it was accepted as a compromise; Norwegian citizens have average attitudes towards European unification (European Social Survey 2008). Thus, a general lesson for the study of Euroscepticism is that it fails to grasp the distinction between opposition to European integration and opposition to EU membership. It tends to overemphasize the significance of formal membership and ignore many different Norwegian ties to the EU. Membership is not so much a question about the EU, but primarily about domestic issues in Norway, as in most of the member states.

Nursing and Theory

Theories and models of nursing practice Dr. Sabah Abbas Ahmad College of Nursing university of Baghdad Sabah. [email  protected] com COMPETENCIES 1. Definitions of theory, concept, model, proposition. 2. Explain the relationships of concepts and propositions to theory 3. Discuss the purpose of theory. 4. Explain the USE OF theories from other disciplines: . .5. Explain the interdependent roles of nursing practice, nursing theory, and nursing research. .6. History and evolution of nursing theory 7. Identify m Common concept in nursing Theories. 8.Identify the three categories relating to the scope of theories. .. – Theories and models of nursing practice Introduction: Nursing theory provides a perspective from which to define the what of nursing, to describe the who of nursing (who is the client) and when nursing is needed, and to identify the boundaries and goals of nursing’s therapeutic activities. Theory is fundamental to effective nursing practice and research. Th e professionalization of nursing has been and is being brought about through the development and use of nursing theory.The basic elements that structure a nursing theory are concepts and propositions. In a theory, propositions represent how concepts affect each other. A concept is the basic building block of a theory. Definitions – A concept : Is a vehicle of thought? According to Chinn and Kramer (1995, p. 78), the refers to a â€Å"complex mental formulation of †¦ our Perceptions of an observable fact that term concept the world. † A concept labels or names a phenomenon, can be perceived through the senses and explained.A concept assists us in formulating a mental image about an object or situation. Concepts help us to name things and occurrences in the world around us and assist us in communicating with each other about the world. Independence, self-care, and caring are just a few examples of concepts frequently encountered in health care. Theories are formulat ed by linking concepts together. -A conceptual framework or Model: is a structure that links global concepts together and represents the unified whole of a larger reality.The specifics about phenomena within the global whole are better explained by theory. By its nature, a concept is a socially constructed label that may represent more than a single phenomenon. For example, when you hear the word chair, a mental image that probably comes to mind is an item of furniture used for sitting. The word chair could represent many different kinds of furniture for sitting, such as a desk chair, a high chair, or an easy chair . It is important to remember that the same concept may be used differently in various theories.For example, one nursing theory may use the concept of environment to mean all that surrounds a human being (the external environment), whereas another theory may use this concept to mean the external environment and all the biological and psychological components of the person (the internal environment). – What Is a Proposition? A proposition: (another structural element of a theory) is a statement that proposes a relationship between concepts. An example of a nonnursing proposition might be the statement â€Å"people seem to be happier in the springtime. This proposition establishes a relationship between the concept of happiness and the time of the year. A nursing propositional statement linking the concept of helplessness and the concept of loss might be stated as â€Å"multiple and rapid losses predispose one to feelings of helplessness. † Propositional statements in a theory represent the theorist’s particular view of which concepts fit together and, in most theories, establish how concepts affect one another. What Is a Theory? A theory: is a set of concepts and propositions that provide an orderly way to view phenomena.In the scientific literature, Nursing theory is developed to describe the phenomenon (process, occurrence, or event) called nursing. Nursing theory differentiates nursing from other disciplines and activities that in that the purposes of describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling desired outcome of nursing care practices. – â€Å"The purpose of a theory: in scientific disciplines is to guide research to enhance the science by supporting existing knowledge or generating new knowledge†. A theory not only helps us to organize our thoughts and ideas, but it may also help direct us in what to do and when and how to do it.The use of the term theory is not restricted to the scientific world, however. It is often used in daily life and conversation. For example, when telling a friend about a mystery novel you are reading, you may have said, â€Å"I have a theory about who committed the crime. † -USE OF theories from other disciplines: In addition to using theories specifically constructed to describe, explain, and predict the phenomena of concern to nursing, the nursi ng profession has long used theories from other disciplines. A discipline : is a field of study.Theories from biological, physical, and behavioral sciences are commonly used in the practice of nursing. For example, nonnursing theories such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic Human Needs, Erikson’s Theory of Human Development, and Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome have been and continue to be useful in nursing practice. These nonnursing theories are often incorporated into nursing practice together with specific nursing theories. – – Importance of nursing theories ;in clinical practice: Nursing theories provide a framework for thought in which to examine situations.As new situations are encountered, this framework provides a structure for organization, analysis, and decision making. In addition, nursing theories provide a structure for communicating with other nurses and with other members of the health care team. Nursing theories assist the discipline of nursing in clarifying beliefs, values, and goals, and they help to define the unique contribution of nursing in the care of clients. When the focus of nursing’s contribution is clear, then greater professional autonomy and, ultimately, control of certain aspects of practice are achieved.In the broadest sense, nursing theory is necessary for the continued development and evolution of the discipline of nursing. Because the world of health care changes virtually on a daily basis, nursing needs to continue to expand its knowledge base to proactively respond to changes in societal needs. Knowledge for nursing practice is developed through nursing research that, in turn, is used to either test existing theories or generate new theories. Nursing Practice Nursing research Nursing theory Process of knowledge development. Nursing practice, theory, and research are interdependent.Nursing theory development and nursing research activities are directed toward developing nursing practi ce standards . Nurses may use a specific nursing theory to help guide their practice or may choose a more eclectic approach and adopt ideas from several theories. Both of these approaches are valid. Furthermore, nurses may find some theories more appropriate for certain situations. In that case, one theory can be used with a client in a home health care setting, whereas another theory may be more applicable to a client in an acute care environment.Regardless of the approach chosen, nurses will recognize the value and usefulness of nursing theory as a tool for effective nursing practice. Common concept in nursing Theories: Four concepts common in nursing theory that influence and determine nursing practice are: 1-The person (patient) 3- Health and 4- Nursing Each of these concepts is usually defined and described by a nursing theorist, and although these concepts are common to all nursing theories, both the definition and the relations among them may differ from one theory to another .Of the four concepts, the most important is that of the person . The focus of nursing, regardless of definition or Theory, is the person. Relationship of theory to nursing process: Professional nurses use theories from nursing and from the behavioral sciences to collect, organize, and classify patient data and to understand, analyze, and interpret patients' health situations.Theoretical concepts and theories guide all phases of the nursing process, including planning, implementing, and evaluating nursing care, while also describing and explaining desired responses to and outcomes of care. The major concepts of a chosen model or theory guide each of the nursing process . The concepts serve as categories to the nurse in determining what information is relevant and should be collected to make assessments and to formulate nursing diagnoses.The concepts also suggest the appropriate types of nursing interventions and patient outcomes to be included in the care plan. Types of theories: â €Å"Although theories address relatively specific and concrete phenomena, they vary in scope. Scope refers to the relative level of substantive specificity of a theory and the concreteness of its concepts and propositions† three different categories relate to the scope of theories: grand theories, middle-range theories, and micro-range theories.This classification is applicable to both nursing and nonnursing theories. 1- A grand theory is composed of concepts representing global and extremely complex phenomena. It is the broadest in scope, represents the most abstract level of development, and addresses the broad phenomena of concern within the discipline. Typically, a grand theory is not intended to provide guidance for the formation of specific nursing interventions, but rather provides an overall framework for structuring broad, abstract ideas (Fawcett, 1993).An example of a grand theory is Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory of Nursing. 2- Middle-Range Theory : A theor y that addresses more concrete and more narrowly defined phenomena than a grand theory is known as a middle-range theory. Descriptions, explanations, and predictions put forth in a middle-range theory are intended to answer questions about nursing phenomena, yet they do not cover the full range of phenomena of concern to the discipline. A middle- ange theory provides a perspective from which to view complex situations and a direction for interventions (Fawcett, 1993). An example of a middlerange theory is Peplau’s Theory of Interpersonal Relations. 3- A micro-range theory is the most concrete and narrow in scope. A micro- range theory explains a specific phenomenon of concern to the discipline (Fawcett, 1993), such as the effect of social supports on grieving and would establish nursing care guidelines to address the problem. History and evolution of nursing theory The work of early nursing theorists in the 1950s focused on the tasks of nursing practice from a somewhat mechan istic viewpoint. Because of this emphasis, much of the art of nursing—the value of caring, the relationship aspects of nursing, and the esthetics of practice—was diminished. During the decades of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, many nursing theorists struggled with making nursing practice, theory, and research fit into the then prevailing view of science.Reflecting changes in global awareness of health care needs, several contemporary nursing theorists have projected a new perspective for nursing that truly unifies the notion of nursing as both an art and a science. Noted nursing theorists such as Leininger, Watson, Rogers, Parse, and Newman have been urging the discipline of nursing to embrace this new emerging view that is seen as more holistic, humanistic, client focused, and grounded in the notion of caring as the core of nursing.Since the early 1950s, many nursing theories have been systematically developed to help describe, explain, and predict the phenomena of conc ern to nursing. Each of these established theories provides a unique perspective and each is distinct and separate from other nursing theories in its particular view of nursing phenomena. REFERENCES Leahy,j. ,Kizilay,P. : Foundations of nursing practice; Nursing process Approach, New York, W. B. Saunders, 2005 White, L. : Foundations of Nursing: Caring the Whole Person, NewYork, Thomson Learning, 2001